The emergence of modern humanitarian aid combines the spontaneous action that is driven by solidarity in times of conflicts and natural catastrophes with the establishment of new standards. These standards aim to not only guide humanitarian action towards self-regulation, but also ensure its long-term viability within national judicial systems through the body of international law that emerged at the end of the 19th century.[1]Hans Haug, Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Henry Dunant Institute and Paul Haupt Publishers, 1993. As early as 1863, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, with its unique profile, emerged as an institutional entrepreneur, creating a multitude of standards, characterised by three specificities. First, they have enjoyed a long lifecycle. Second, they have spread throughout most countries worldwide. And third, they have been – and are today – put to the test when applied directly in the field – an application that is regularly the subject of critical analysis. These rules go beyond simple theory: they provide a solid empirical foundation for a socio-historical analysis of the humanitarian sector.
In 1965, delegates from the 20th International Conference of the Red Cross adopted an entire set of principles to guide the Movement’s actions: the Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Originally formulated in 1955 by Jean Pictet,[2]Jean Pictet centred his thesis on the Principles of the Red Cross, developing a useful analytical and work tool for the entire Movement. It took the Red Cross ten years to adopt, in their final and … Continue reading a doctoral law student at the time, the seven principles – humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary service, unity and universality – still provide today, sixty years later, an ethical and operational framework for the Movement.[3]ICRC, The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, 4 May 2021, Library/Research Guides, … Continue reading These principles represent “the crystallization of more than a century of operational experience and normative developments within the Movement”:[4]CICR and FICR, The Fundamental Principles in Action : A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework, 32nd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva, Switzerland, … Continue reading before these seven principles were finalised, several others existed, many contradictory and sometimes a source of confusion.[5]Donald D. Tansley, Final report: an agenda for Red Cross. Study on the re-appraisal of the role of the Red Cross, 1975, p.34–35.
[6]CICR and FICR, The Fundamental Principles in Action : A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework…, op. cit., p.4.
Among the seven fundamental principles enacted, known as “humanitarian principles”, the first four – humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence – have received and benefitted from significant attention, generating an ongoing debate that has had a large influence on the international humanitarian aid community.[7]Ibid. In just a few decades, hundreds of different types of organisations have adopted these principles (with a strong consensus in favor of impartiality[8]Joël Glasman, “The invention of impartiality: the history of a humanitarian principle, from a legal, strategic and algorithmic perspective”, Humanitarian Alternatives, no15, Novembre 2020, … Continue reading), ranging from humanitarian and development non governmental organisations (NGOs) to United Nations (UN) organisations that integrated them during the 1991 reform.[9]“UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 of 19 December 1991 adopted the principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality, and independence was officially recognized in 2003 in UNGA Resolution … Continue reading However, voluntary service, unity and universality are much less emphasised as principles.[10]Robert Mardini, “Back to basics: humanitarian principles in contemporary armed conflict”, Humanitarian Law and Policy blog,16 June 2022, … Continue reading This is probably due to the fact that they have remained a hallmark of the International Movement. Described as “organic”,[11]Hans Haug, Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement…, op. cit. these principles were adopted to serve as organisation and operations guidelines[12]ICRC and IFCR. The Fundamental Principles in Action: A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework…, op. cit. of the latter: their scope is therefore considered “lesser” by Jean Pictet.[13]Vincent Bernard, « L’ethos humanitaire en action », Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, vol. 97, Sélection française 2015 / 1 et 2, citation de Jean Pictet, p. 6, … Continue reading For the Movement’s components, nevertheless, these principles are just as binding as the other four and inextricably linked to the idea and pragmatism of humanitarianism in the Dunantist perspective.[14]ICRC, Our Fundamental Principles, https://www.icrc.org/en/our-fundamental-principles They form the foundation that enables the ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross), the IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) and the National Societies to organise and deliver humanitarian operations and services in an impartial, neutral and independent manner, whatever the country or situation. They also set out the ways in which the National Societies are to be anchored at local level, and how the various components of the Movement are to cooperate. None of the seven principles “should be considered in isolation from the others: they are interdependent and mutually reinforcing”.[15]ICRC and IFCR. The Fundamental Principles in Action: A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework…, op. cit., p.5. Few analyses explore the effects of more fragmented use of some of these principles by multilateral or non-governmental organisations. In addition, issues regarding volunteer safety and security, as well as access to people being helped, require that these principles be promoted, understood and applied.[16]Ibid., p.10–11.
Few analyses explore the effects of more fragmented use of some of these principles by multilateral or nongovernmental organisations.
In connection with the “primordial” principle of humanity, how do these forgotten principles and their application offer such a relevant interpretation of the four others with regard to what is at stake for modern humanitarian aid? How can we revisit them empirically to suggest avenues for transformation? In what ways do these principles extend beyond the reach of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, as their wording suggests? Do they offer opportunities to build greater awareness among other stakeholders in the sector? These are the questions that guide this contribution.[17]Contrary to analyses based on principles widely adopted by international organisations, this article offers the opportunity to reexamine the foundation of Dunant’s thought and the doctrine … Continue reading
Voluntary service: a humanitarian principle under threat
Voluntary service ranks among the founding and core principles of the ICRC and the National Societies.[18]Voluntary service. The Movement is a voluntary relief movement not prompted in any manner by desire for gain, https://www.icrc.org/en/our-fundamental-principles “As early as 1859, on the battlefield of Solferino, the concepts of voluntary action and non-discrimination – the latter being a key element of impartiality – lay at the heart of what drove Henry Dunant to provide emergency care for wounded soldiers. This impetus was rooted in the need to respond to suffering with compassion, which forms the foundation of the principle of humanity”.[19]Daniel Palmieri, Les principes fondamentaux de la Croix-Rouge : une histoire politique, Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 6 juillet 2015, … Continue reading
This principle, which encompasses two main ideas – free choice and free-of-charge (therefore selflessness) – describes an active and individual approach[20]Hans Haug, Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement…, op. cit. (blood donors, student volunteers, rescue workers, care givers, etc.). Since these principles are binding for all aspects of the Movement, it is crucial to train all new volunteers. From an empirical perspective, in 2021 the IFRC had 16.5 million volunteers[21]International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Annual Report 2022, 13 July 2023, https://www.ifrc.org/document/annual-report-2022 Note the ambiguity between the two French terms … Continue reading in 191 countries and 197,000 local branches. For the past 160 years, up to the present day, this has contributed to a transnational understanding of humanitarian standards on an unprecedented scale – standards designed by and for the Red Cross, as well as for all organisations that refer to these standards.
So, voluntary service can be considered a core driver for the institutionalisation of the other six principles. It proves invaluable for the entire humanitarian movement, for protection programmes – that include a solid understanding of international humanitarian law – and the deployment of humanitarian aid.
In addition to targeted training courses on international humanitarian law, the internalisation of these principles goes through a national framework in which each Red Cross or Red Crescent Society around the world has translated them into its national language(s) and trained its volunteers in their immediate application in their day-to-day mission. Principles have also been institutionalised over the decades, through resolutions and strategic guidelines, as well as more operational frameworks and standards. For example, a joint publication from the ICRC and IFRC recommends that, during the assessment and certification process for National Societies, the seven principles be, “fully integrated […], including in relation to training and coaching”.[22]ICRC and IFCR. The Fundamental Principles in Action: A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework…, op. cit., p.16. Volunteer development,volunteer training programmes, the socialisation involved in their local unit, and issues faced into direct implementation all contribute to this. At a time when the ways in which people volunteer are changing, we need to consider the importance and value of volunteer networks in the contextual “translation”, dissemination and universalisation of these principles.
This is all the more true given that there are two threats to running volunteer networks. The first involves finding the right balance between professionalism, bureaucracy and volunteer commitment – an issue that organisations in every country face. Forty years ago, Pictet himself noted that the logic of “bureaucratisation”, associated with proper management, and “amateurism”, linked to volunteer organisation, represented opposing threats for the entire sector if either was taken to the extreme:
“The tendency towards ‘over-organization’ nowadays threatens nearly all institutions. One must make sure that ‘activism’ and ‘perfectionism’ are not allowed to drown out the true message. […]. If it should ever lose its direct contact with humanity and suffering, if it should ever forget its voluntary character, the institution would be like a cut flower and, deprived of its sap, would soon wither and die. The machinery set up in a bureaucratic spirit, however well oiled, would become an end in itself, it would be running on no load, or it could be envisaged as a giant without eyes. […]. The other danger facing us is that of amateurism, a disease afflicting many voluntary organizations. […]. A majority of National Societies still follow the traditional and historic conception of “charity”, that is to say, individual relief, given sporadically and on a small scale.”[23]Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: Commentary, Institut Henry-Dunant, 1979, https://www.icrc.org/en/article/fundamentalprinciples-red-cross-commentary#text1768999
In this way, Pictet alerts us to the need for institutional creativity to strike the right balance between the lack of discipline of the philanthropic and the “rigid and invasive” effects of excessive professionalism. At present, do the humanitarian sector organises the structure and dynamics to foster this creativity? In fact, this professionalism described as “paralysing” can be found when managing international humanitarian aid projects, often imposed in an “overly bureaucratic” form by funders of NGOs.[24]Ludovic Donnadieu, “Associations and their international public funders: reconciling accountability with efficiency in solidarity projects”, Humanitarian Alternatives, no. 24, … Continue reading In the name of accountability, non-standardized audits and procedures among the various funders take up a significant amount of time, energy and money, while resources already fail to help address needs completely[25]This data is available on demand on the Fednet.ifrc.org website. and humanitarian players require a lot of leeway.
The second threat lies in the way in which partner Societies cooperate with each other and, more broadly, in the relationship between local organisations and the international humanitarian aid system. As per the conclusions from the 2016 World Humanitarian Summit, the aid economy has helped position several local organisations as humanitarian aid service providers. This is contradictory with taking on leadership responsibilities and achieving independence on a national scale. In terms of the autonomy of humanitarian organisations in the Global South, locally elected volunteers and employees of African Red Cross Societies have highlighted the difficulties that directors and managers face in reconciling the goals of an international aid project, which require sometimes massive recruitment of locals and proper running of a local network of unpaid volunteers, even though their compatibility can be organised.[26]Virginie Troit, Humanitarian Norms and Global South Organisations: the challenges of self-regulation. Experiences of the ECCO standard of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent … Continue reading With regard to disparities in treatment, in salary scales tied to funding partners, in time commitment, in working languages, in contract types and in training, the clash between these two ways of thinking and operating can interfere with local development dynamics if they are not addressed directly and adjusted with international cooperation. Moreover, the rationale for developing associations based on selfless action does not necessarily align with that of foreign partners, influenced by foreign policy considerations.[27]Compatibility is expressed at a national level by those in an auxiliary role. Jean Pictet (The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross…, op. cit.) noticed the difference between actions … Continue reading
It therefore seems appropriate for the sector to consider the impact of volunteering practises on the principles and practices of humanitarian action, the risk of it disappearing, and the measures required to preserve and even strengthen it if the for-profit privatisation of humanitarian activities increases, and the conditions for preserving and even developing volunteering. The high-intensity conflicts in Ukraine and the Middle East, the responses to pandemics, disasters such as the earthquake in Turkey and Syria in 2023 or, more recently, humanitarian interventions in Mayotte, mobilise volunteers from both formal and informal organisations. These situations highlight the risks and dilemmas that these volunteers may experience and how these commitments in sensitive and dangerous contexts can either reinforce or undermine the respect of other principles to help and protect.
The principle of unity composing with contexts
For the Movement, this principle[28]Unity. There can be only one Red Cross or one Red Crescent Society in any one country. It must be open to all. It must carry on its humanitarian work throughout its territory. … Continue reading encompasses three dimensions that can lead to confusion.[29]According to the author, the term unity is imperfect as the principle serves as a guide for three distinct realities specific to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and that … Continue reading According to Hans Haug, the term unity itself is imperfect. These three realities involve the official registration of a single organisation for an entire region, non-discriminatory recruiting practices of its members and employees and the provision of humanitarian services throughout the entire country.[30]Ibid., p.485. These issues are discussed in different terms within international NGOs, which may operate in targeted regions, or act in a country on behalf of different foreign sections, while employing both national and international staff.
This principle has been tested by the crises and divisions that the world has faced since the 1960s: decolonisation, internal and international conflicts, migrations, etc. Although this principle is little-studied, the empirical realities it underpins are nonetheless highly relevant to understanding the challenges of aid localisation, as it navigates between the dynamics of local solidarity and those of international cooperation. With applications in 191 countries, this principle implies an unprecedented territorial anchoring of humanitarian assistance.
On the dimension of staff diversity, the book published to mark fifty years of the Kenya Red Cross looks back at the turbulent period from the 1940s to the 1970s when implementing diversity in humanitarian action, but also the progress made possible. During this time the country gained independence and the and the country’s Red Cross entity ceased to be a branch of the British Red Cross to become an independent Red Cross Society (between 1963 and 1966, it was recognised by the ICRC, the IFRC and the government). While the 1950s were marked by a desire to ensure a growing African representation within the League (the former name of the IFRC), integrating “native Kenyan” members happened, in reality, gradually. In 1948, members still wore distinctive badges based on their “racial difference” and certain members, based on their affiliation, could only be included in the “junior” category, regardless of their age.[31]Hans Haug indicates that in 1945, in spite of the apparent universality of the Movement and its 65 members, “thirty-four belonged to Europe, twenty-one to the Americas”. Hans Haug, Humanity for … Continue reading However, in 1952, “to reduce discrimination and encourage impartiality”, the Kenyan Red Cross inaugurated the first interracial blood bank to combat discrimination.[32]Kenya Red Cross Society, Red Cross Serving Humanity: Kenya, 2015, pp. 43–46. Seventy years before the #BlackLivesMatter movement and accusations of racism against major international NGOs,[33]Laurence Caramel, « Le mouvement Black Lives Matter contraint les ONG humanitaires à un examen de conscience », Le Monde Afrique, 7 juillet 2020, … Continue reading this principle compelled National Societies to rethink their anti-discrimination policies throughout the 20th century, a process that continues to this day.
Analysing the way in which National Societies apply the principle of unity can therefore help guide the dynamics of human resources and governance structures in transnational humanitarian organisations and contribute to the debate on “decolonisation” or “dewesternisation” of aid in light of a wide range of paths taken. This principle also ensures that the volunteer network reflects the diversity of a country’s society and reinforces the principle of impartiality. Case studies have been produced by National Societies to explain the challenges and solutions they face.
Universality, from an abstract principle to everyday use
According to Pictet, this principle[34]Universality. The Movement, in which all National Societies have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties in helping each other, is worldwide. … Continue reading comprises three dimensions that the most recent crises (health, migratory and environmental) have shaken up. These dimensions are universal character, equality between the National Societies and solidarity within the Movement.[35]Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross…, op. cit. Just as Haug described humanity as the principle that connects “the heart and soul”[36]Hans Haug, Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement…, op. cit., p.449. of the Red Cross, it can be said that universality connects the six other principles to the world arena and regulates cooperation within the international Movement. At a time when the universality of norms and international institutions are under ever-growing strain, this principle warrants our undivided attention.
It can be said that universality connects the six other principles to the world arena and regulates cooperation within the international Movement.
Haug explains that the ICRC introduced this principle as early as 1921[37]“In 1921, four principles were for the first time put in writing and incorporated in the Statutes of the International Committee of the Red Cross: impartiality; political, religious and economic … Continue reading with the idea of establishing equality between National Societies[38]Ibid. p.491. But this perspective remained detached: as he said, “The recently created League of Red Cross Societies was initially only open to National Societies from countries among the ‘Allied Powers’ during World War I”.[39]Ibid. (Translated into English from the French version) The danger to Dunant’s idea of humanitarianism, brought about by the blatant inequalities in representation, forced the Movement to reaffirm equal rights for National Societies in 1952. Pictet explains that “parity of rights is the rule which best fits an institution which does not have the same motivations as those of states and which is entirely devoted to the welfare of the human being”.[40]Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross…, op. cit. So we can see a slow institutional and collective progression aimed at preventing power struggles, avoiding power asymmetries and guaranteeing spaces for governance and deliberation that comply with the principles, and are capable of ensuring them. Whether at the International Conference,[41]“The International Conference is a unique forum bringing together the world’s largest humanitarian network and nearly every government. It is a major event on the humanitarian calendar and the … Continue reading the Council of Delegates[42]It “gathers together all the components of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the ICRC and the IFRC) to discuss matters concerning … Continue reading or the IFRC General Assembly, each member has one vote, just like in public international law.[43]ICRC and IFCR. The Fundamental Principles in Action: A unique ethical, operational and institutional framework…, op. cit., p.492.
Furthermore, since 1919, the IFRC has created entities that uphold member equality regardless of their history, economic power, activities and number of volunteers by opting for one representation by region. Rooted in the notion of “equality when dealing with suffering”, this institutional equality – translated into statutes and this form of advanced universalisation thanks to representation in virtually every country in the world – differs de facto from the governance of numerous transnational networks. Of course, this does not eliminate the disparities that exist between National Societies and this fuels power relations at all levels in the battle for funding or when elections are held. The Movement’s theorists and experts obviously take these complex issues on board, and try to regulate them in consensus by developing frameworks and codes of conduct appropriate to each period, yet they underline the ideal of symmetry and of respect for the autonomy of each organisation, whatever its situation.
According to research conducted on the standards for assessing the capacities of National Societies, which are members of the IFRC, the flexibility of the Movement and the development of its various components owe much to its internal capacity for deliberations and its mutual understanding capacity, as embedded in its standards and the methods for spreading them.
To apply this principle within such a large and heterogeneous network, Pictet explains that the choice of federalism, rather than centralisation, provides the flexibility needed and which, in 2022, covered 192,000 local units.[44]International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Annual Report 2022…, op. cit.
“Standing as an obstacle to unity is the variegated nature of the world, with its multiple facets. The work is therefore shaped along the lines of the widely differing nationalities, crystallized by such elements as sovereignty, culture, political regimes and the characteristics of peoples. […] From the beginning, the National Societies were created as independent and self-governing institutions. […] National Red Cross Societies, as such, are not governed by universality. […]. It is the international bodies of the Red Cross which practice universality and place no geographical limits to their action.”[45]Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross…, op. cit.
It is possible that the existence of two international organisations, the ICRC and the IFRC, which have to continuously negotiate, sometimes tensely, their complementarity in very different humanitarian situations, has contributed to the off-centring needed to leave a form of universality that is only superficial. Indeed, this off-centring has slowly promoted sociological diversity and managerial mobility among members, the Geneva Secretariat and the regional delegations on every continent.[46]Virginie Troit, Humanitarian Norms and Global South Organisations…, op. cit. A recent research programme highlighted this “resilient humanitarianism” specific to the IFRC and its members which allowed it to traverse the 20th century by continuing to grow with the challenge of universality.[47]Melanie Oppenheimer, Susanne Schech, Romain Fathi et al., “Resilient Humanitarianism? Using Assemblage to re-evaluate the history of the League of Red Cross Societies”, The International History … Continue reading In 2025, it is clear that tensions between a logic of worldwide political unity and a logic of fragmentation and polarisation is growing. The enunciation, dissemination and internalization of the seventh principle have not only kept the institution on course to reduce them, but also enabled it to pioneer the agenda for localising aid structurally for almost a century. Other networks have grown based on similar ideas, but their universalisation is not as developed.
In October 2024, in view of the social phenomena observed worldwide (disinformation, polarisation, politicisation of aid, rising violence against humanitarian workers, etc.) and the extremely worrying international context, a Council of Delegates resolution appealed to states to respect neutral, impartial and independent humanitarian action. At the same time, it stressed the obligation of the Movement’s components to act in accordance with the seven Fundamental Principles.[48]Council of Delegates of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Call for respect and support for principled humanitarian action, 27-28 October 2024, … Continue reading Beyond the International Movement, the combination of the seven principles certainly provides essential analytical keys for thinking about collective ways forward in the face of international aid that is in the process of being (un)shaped. But history remains to be written.
The views expressed in this article are those of the author and not of the organisation she works for.
Translated from the French by Darin Reisman
Picture Credit : ICRC
