Throughout history, energy resources have been strategic targets during armed conflict. And electricity infrastructure has long been on the front line. This is especially true in Ukraine and Gaza, as the authors explain here.
In contemporary conflicts, electricity plays a crucial role, both for the survival of civilian populations and in military operations. In fact, electricity infrastructure has become a high-priority target, crippling entire societies and exacerbating the suffering of civilians. The conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza provide a vivid illustration of this trend.
Yet the scale of destruction of electricity infrastructure, the means for restoring these services and the ability to mobilise international aid are very different in these two contexts. This article presents a comparative analysis of issues in electricity in Ukraine and Gaza, highlighting the humanitarian impact of targeting such infrastructure and how such actions violate international humanitarian law (IHL).
Electricity as a strategic target in the history of conflict
“Since the First World War, destruction of critical infrastructure such as power grids has been a military tactic designed to weaken the enemy.”
The use of electricity as a strategic target in armed conflict is not new.[1]See also the works of Éric Verdeil, « L’électricité, cible de guerre », Diplomatie, n° 29, novembre-décembre 2007 ; Samir Saul, « L’électricité, enjeu de guerre », in Olivier Asselin, … Continue reading Since the First World War, destruction of critical infrastructure such as power grids has been a military tactic designed to weaken the enemy. Allied air strikes during the Second World War, for example, systematically targeted German power plants to slow down war-related industrial output. During the Iraq wars (1991 and 2003), bombing campaigns were also directed at electricity networks, causing large-scale humanitarian crises.
This type of targeting is based on the idea that cutting off electricity will have a ripple effect on other critical infrastructure – water supply, waste treatment, communications and the health system. Yet this strategy runs counter to the fundamental principles of IHL, which aims to protect civilians from the effects of hostilities.
International humanitarian law faced with the targeting of electricity infrastructure
International humanitarian law expressly prohibits the targeting of civilian installations such as power plants, unless they are being directly used for military purposes. The principle of distinction, codified in the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, requires all parties to conflicts to distinguish between military targets and civilian objects, including electricity infrastructure. The prohibiting of indiscriminate attacks and the principle of proportionality reinforce this protection, stipulating that injuries to civilians and damage to their property must not be excessive in relation to any military advantage expected.
Despite this protection, recent conflicts such as those in Ukraine and Gaza have shown that these principles are often ignored. Electricity infrastructure has regularly been targeted there with catastrophic consequences for the civilian populations. Both conflicts have been marked by countless violations of norms in international law.[2]See also, in particular: Oona A. Hathaway, “War unbound. Gaza, Ukraine, and the breakdown of international law”, Foreign Affairs, May-June 2024 ; Julien Ancelin et Olivier Vidal, « L’arme du … Continue reading This law and the credibility of those who defend it are being seriously challenged both by the belligerent powers and by the unequal response to the two conflicts. Russia has cited the actions taken by the United States in its “war against terrorism” to justify its attacks on Ukraine, while Israel invokes these and goes even further by referring to the allied bombing of civilians during the Second World War to justify its bombing of Gaza.
The President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, has been criticised for condemning Russian attacks on civilian infrastructure in Ukraine while confirming her unwavering support for Israel, even though the latter has destroyed, among other things, Gazan electricity infrastructure and made the Gaza Strip virtually uninhabitable. Unconditional support for Israel fuels the charge, which is widespread in countries of the Global South, that the West only invokes international law to constrain the rest of the world.[3]Faisal Devji, “Ukraine, Gaza, and the International Order”, Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft, Brief no. 52, February 2024, … Continue reading
Ukraine: an all-out war on energy infrastructure
Since Russia’s invasion in February 2022, Ukraine’s energy infrastructure has been targeted systematically, albeit in different ways depending on how the military situation has developed. For the past two and a half years, Russia has carried out mass air strikes, first against substations and power lines and, later, against production facilities, causing widespread power cuts.
“With temperatures below zero, several million people without power, heating and water, this is clearly a crime against humanity’, declared Volodymyr Zelenskyy, the Ukrainian President, in December 2022, addressing the UN Security Council by video link. ‘We cannot be hostages to international terrorism,’ he said. ‘Russia is doing everything possible to make an electricity generator a more powerful tool than the United Nations Charter.”[4]Courrier International, « En Ukraine, le “froid hivernal”, nouvelle arme de Vladimir Poutine », 24 novembre 2022, … Continue reading
Before the war, Ukraine had an installed capacity of approximately 55 gigawatts (GW), comparable to that of Poland (58 GW), with heavy dependence on thermal power (66% of production) and nuclear plants (25%).[5]International Energy Agency, Ukraine Energy Profile, IEA, September 2021, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ac51678f-5069-4495-9551-87040cb0c99d/UkraineEnergyProfile.pdf But the systematic targeting of energy infrastructure has caused regular breakdowns of the system. There are especially two striking examples of this. First, the occupation, from March 2022, of the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant, Europe’s largest with a capacity 6,000 megawatts (MW). This plant’s closeness to the front line raises constant fears of disaster. And second, the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam in the spring of 2023. Prolonged power outages plunged millions of people into cold and darkness, exacerbating the humanitarian crisis. The international response was swift.
“Synchronisation with the European electricity grid in March 2022, less than three weeks after the invasion, helped Ukraine offset this, partially making up its supply.”
Synchronisation with the European electricity grid in March 2022, less than three weeks after the invasion, helped Ukraine offset this, partially making up its supply by importing up to 1.7GW of electricity.[6]Transitions et Énergies, « L’Ukraine raccordée en urgence au réseau électrique européen », 21 mars 2022, https://www.transitionsenergies.com/ukraine-raccordee-reseau-electrique-europeen ; … Continue reading Subsequently, international emergency aid helped dispatch more than 5,000 generators to power vital structures such as hospitals and emergency services. During the first winter of the war, it was the electricity transmission infrastructure that was targeted first, probably because Russia hoped to occupy the territory and it was in its interest not to cause excessive damage. Since March 2024,[7]Le Monde, « Moscou dit avoir frappé des sites énergétiques et des aérodromes », 1er septembre 2024 ; Anastasiia Malenko,“Ukraine races to fix and shield its power plants after russian … Continue reading the strikes have been a sign than this tactic is less favoured today: it is now mainly power plants that are being targeted as they are very difficult to repair.
Russia’s aim at present is simply destruction – with no concern about recovery in the medium term. According to an International Energy Agency report published on 19 September this year on the energy crisis of Ukraine’s coming winter,[8]Nathan Canas, « L’UE et l’Agence internationale de l’énergie lancent un plan pour aider l’Ukraine à affronter l’hiver », Euractiv, 20 septembre 2024, … Continue reading estimates indicate that capacity has been reduced to 9GW, with a demand that is expected to peak at 18.5GW during the 2024-25 winter. And destruction of the country’s many heating networks has increased demand for electricity for replacement electric heating.
The most recent attacks have nonetheless prompted Ukraine’s national authorities to make changes to their response. After the first winter, electricity operators only sought to rebuild what had been destroyed, sticking to the existing centralised system. But now, most of them are calling for energy efficiency and for boosting decentralised production of independent, even renewable, energy to withstand attacks better.
Gaza: an enclave facing a permanent energy crisis
The case of the Gaza Strip is different in many respects. With a population of more than two million in such a small area, it suffers from a chronic energy crisis, made worse by successive conflicts.[9]Human Rights Watch, Gaza : La frappe contre la centrale électrique a eu de graves répercussions, 9 août 2014, … Continue reading Before 7 October 2023, Gaza depended mainly on importing electricity from Israel, with approximately 120 megawatts (MW) supplied daily. It had its own power station, but this station’s output of 140 MW was limited to 60 MW due to a lack of fuel (supply of which Israel also controls) and damage sustained during Israeli strikes, an interconnection with Egypt having never come into operation.[10]OCHA, Aperçu humanitaire mondial 2021 (Moyen-Orient et Afrique du Nord), rapport de 2021, https://archive.2021.gho.unocha.org/fr/inter-agency-appeals/moyen-orient-et-afrique-du-nord This capacity fell well below the daily demand for electricity in Gaza, estimated at 400 MW, which already resulted in large-scale power outages that often left inhabitants with only a few hours of electricity each day.[11]World Bank, Joint World Bank, UN Report Assesses Damage to Gaza’s Infrastructure, 2 April 2024, … Continue reading Two days after the 7 October 2023 terrorist attacks, Israel’s Defence Minister announced a “complete” siege of the Gaza Strip – “no electricity, no water, no gas” – and the Hebrew State claimed the “right to defend itself with dramatic consequences”.[12]CARE, Gaza : 84 % des lumières éteintes, l’ONG CARE alerte sur la famine et la maladie rampantes, 29 février 2024, … Continue reading
“Here, cutting off electricity ultimately seems to be more about opportunity insofar as it is an easy target and one in the hands of the Israeli authorities.”
In addition to Israel cutting off its power supply, the Palestinian Energy Authority in Gaza announced, in November 2023, that 70% of electricity transmission and distribution networks had been destroyed by the bombings.[13]Palestine News Network, “Gaza is starving, without water or electricity, and 40 % of its hospitals have stopped”, 9 November 2023, … Continue reading Here, cutting off electricity ultimately seems to be more about opportunity insofar as it is an easy target and one in the hands of the Israeli authorities. With fuel imports and deliveries cut off, and without any interconnection, the electricity supply is severed, even when it is not undergoing bombings, and this impacts Gaza’s civilians overwhelmingly.
Unlike in Ukraine, and as already mentioned, Gaza does not have access to a regional electricity network to offset its needs. Despite requests and efforts from international aid agencies, delivery of backup generators has been minimal. This is combined with an insufficient supply of fuel. All this results from restrictions that the Israeli blockade has put on the entry of goods.
Decentralised solar production: a promising alternative?
Given the fragility of the core networks, decentralised electricity production – from solar power in particular – is a promising perspective for both these regions. In Ukraine, several projects have been pursued to install solar panels upon critical structures like hospitals and schools to make sure they can be self-sufficient in the event of power cuts.[14]François Grünewald et Didier Issen, Les enjeux énergétiques en Ukraine face à l’hiver 2023-2024, Electriciens sans frontières, 30 novembre 2023, … Continue reading These solutions help reduce dependence on centralised infrastructure and on the importation of fossil fuels, both of which are vulnerable to attacks, while offering greater resilience.
In Gaza, before the current war, solar power had also become increasingly important. Photovoltaic cells on the roofs of houses, schools and hospitals provide basic electricity during periods of prolonged power cuts. According to a study published in the journal Energy, Sustainability and Society in 2022,[15]Hala J. El-Khozondar and Fady El-Batta, “Solar energy implementation at the household level: Gaza Strip case study”, Energy, Sustainability and Society, vol. 12, no. 1, December 2022 … Continue reading around 20% of a representative sample of households taking part in the study in Gaza had installed solar panels on their roofs. Yet the development of this technology has been hampered in recent years by the equipment’s cost and by restrictions on imports of the required materials, these restrictions having been comprehensive for the past year.[16]Le Figaro avec AFP, « Limitée en électricité, la bande de Gaza mène sa révolution solaire », 3 octobre 2022, … Continue reading
International aid agency responses: from effectiveness to limitations
In each of these two conflicts, international aid has played a different role in response to the energy crises. In Ukraine, the European Union’s support and that from other international players has helped stabilise the power grid. Synchronising this power grid with the European network was a major step in strengthening the country’s energy resilience. Considerable financial and material resources have been shared by governments and electricity firms and, through decentralised initiatives, by towns and the private sector.
In Gaza, on the other hand, international aid has faced structural barriers. The Israeli blockade is restricting access to fuel, building materials and equipment needed to repair the electricity infrastructure or install solar panels. Initiatives from the international community are vital, but are currently blocked.
Electricity as a critical infrastructure is of strategic importance in modern conflicts, with methods and impacts that vary depending on the aggressor’s goals (occupation or total destruction) and on the existing energy situation in the country under attack. Yet one fact that never varies is that civilian populations suffer the most from attacks on energy installations with no regard for the principles of IHL, as seen in both Ukraine and Gaza.
Decentralised production, especially of solar power, offers a promising solution to reduce the vulnerability of electrical power systems. But this solution must not be totally impeded for purely geopolitical reasons far-removed from the neutrality upheld by humanitarian players.
Translated from the French by Fay Guerry
