How a massive influx of internally displaced people caused natural resource overexploitation, leading to rapid deforestation and land degradation, and worsening the current humanitarian crisis. The authors explain what happened, drawing on their research conducted in Cameroon’s Far North.
Makalingaï is a village in Tokombéré, a district located in Cameroon’s Far North. The influx of close to 2,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) fleeing the acts of violence perpetrated by Boko Haram from 2013 to 2023 triggered a humanitarian crisis with profound social and environmental consequences. A population increase of around 9% placed unprecedented pressure on natural resources and the environment. This human pressure has taken the form of expansion of cropland to the detriment of areas of vegetation, reflecting increased resource use to meet the needs of a growing population. How is forced internal displacement, combined with the impact of climate change, affecting ecosystem sustainability and the livelihoods of communities in Makalingaï? And what strategies are being implemented by various stakeholders to address these challenges? This is the thrust of our research, and we present some of its findings in this article.[1]Semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2023 with the Makalingaï district chief and the IDP representative. In addition to the interviews, the research draws on several organisations’ … Continue reading
The study falls within the scope of political ecology[2]Jean-Paul Deléage, « En quoi consiste l’écologie politique ? », Écologie & Politique, vol. 2, n° 40, 2010, p. 21-30 ; Alain Lipietz, « Écologie politique régulationniste ou économie … Continue reading and examines the complex interactions between the social, economic and environmental factors at play in the context of forced displacement. Our findings confirm analysis by different researchers on the close links between humanitarian crises and environmental damage.[3]J.Dupont, « Les réfugiés et l’environnement : une relation complexe », in Les enjeux environnementaux des migrations, Presses Universitaires de France, p. 123-145 ; C. Le Goff, et B. Dubois, « … Continue reading In fact, we have observed a significant correlation between deforestation, disruption to the water cycle and a drop in agricultural yields, with this highlighting ecosystem vulnerability to human pressures. This article analyses the impact of forced displacement on the environment and communities’ livelihoods in Makalingaï, against a backdrop of climate change, and it assesses the effectiveness of local resilience initiatives.
The study was conducted in 2023 as part of doctoral research and was extended alongside the work of the Young Team associated with the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (JEAI IRD)[4]A “JEAI” (Young Team associated with the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development) is made up of at least 3 researchers from the South, based in the South, associated with … Continue reading focusing on the governance of migration and food crises in Mali and Cameroon. From a methodological perspective, the study draws on a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis. A diachronic study of land use changes, combined with field surveys, enabled the environmental impact of migration to be quantified and the main stressors to be identified. At the same time, a qualitative approach was used to gain an understanding of local communities’ perceptions and coping strategies in response to these changes. The study focuses on three areas: landscape transformation caused by forced migration, local intercommunity dialogue initiatives and the challenges of ecological restoration.
Migration, climate and the environment – the challenge facing Makalingaï
Population growth between 2013 and 2023 placed unprecedented pressure on natural resources. As shown by a 2022 study,[5]RESILAC, Activités de cohésion sociale dans la région de l’Extrême-Nord, Pilier 1A, Rapports, 2021. this dynamic has taken the form of a 70-hectare increase in agricultural land to the detriment of a significant decrease in plant cover. These changes bear witness to a rapid deterioration of the natural environments, meaning that biodiversity and the ecological balance are in danger. This change is the result of increased natural resource use by IDPs seeking a livelihood. The clearing of the community forest and the bringing into use of land previously regarded as unproductive unquestionably reflect this human pressure.
The findings of our study are in keeping with the more general observation made by some authors[6]Koko Warner et al., “Climate change environmental degradation and migration”, Natural Hazards, December 2010, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 689-715 ; Freeman, L., « Changements environnementaux, … Continue reading about the environmental impacts of forced migration, while also highlighting the scale of the changes undergone by Makalingaï’s ecosystems. Land degradation, reduced biodiversity and water cycle disruption are threats to production system sustainability and population wellbeing.
The region is subject to greater climatic variability characterised by alternating droughts and flooding
At the same time as these human pressures, the region is subject to greater climatic variability characterised by alternating droughts and flooding. The sixteen-year rainfall data (2009-2024) reported in 2025 by the Tokombéré District Delegation for Agriculture and Rural Development are a perfect illustration of this instability.[7]Tokombéré is a commune in the Cameroon’s Far North region, in the Mayo-Sava department. Makalingaï is a canton and traditional chiefdom in the Tokombéré arrondissement. The year 2017 was marked by a severe 557mm rainfall deficit, while 2020 saw a record excess of 1,271mm. This fluctuation is influenced by global climate change and local agricultural practices. It is making farming increasingly precarious, thus compromising the community’s food security.[8]S.Diallo et M. Traoré, « Impacts des changements climatiques sur les systèmes de production agricole dans le bassin du lac Tchad », Revue des Sciences de l’Eau, 37(2), p. 115-132.
The co-occurrence of growing anthropic pressures and climatic variability has caused rapid deterioration of Makalingaï’s ecosystems, compromising local communities’ food security. Agricultural yields dropped by 30% between 2019 and 2023. In response to this emergency situation, the creation of an agro-forestry area, combined with land restoration and collective natural resource management, has proved vital in increasing local community resilience and securing their future. A collective and joined-up approach became crucial to address the growing environmental pressures and tensions about natural resources. Intercommunity dialogue emerged as a key driver for reducing conflicts, fostering peaceful coexistence and encouraging sustainable management strategies tailored to the local challenges.
Intercommunity resilience- the power of dialogue
In response to the conflicts about access to natural resources pitting the host communities against the displaced populations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as the Association Camerounaise pour le Dialogue Interreligieux (ACADIR) and the Redressement économique et social inclusif du lac Tchad (RESILAC), with the support of the traditional and administrative authorities, set up forums for dialogue to resolve these conflicts and bring the communities together (see table below). Involvement in intercommunity dialogue in the host areas of Makalingaï was based on four main topics: fostering synergy between the stakeholders, increasing human capital with a role for young people, increasing cultural capital, and natural resource inclusivity.[9]RESILAC, Activités de cohésion sociale dans la région de l’Extrême-Nord, Pilier 1A, 2021, op. cit. The intercommunity dialogue approach, based on participatory engagement, creates a space where the members of different communities can discuss pressing issues and collectively develop context-specific solutions. The IDPs played an active role in these dialogues in the host communities on the Mora Plain.[10]The Mora plain is a vast area in the Cameroon’s Far North region, close to the Mandara Mountains. Although it is relatively close geographically to Makalingaï, it is important to note that the … Continue reading They contributed invaluable information about barriers to their integration. Specifically, difficulties accessing water and maternal healthcare, as evidenced by the prevalence of home births among displaced women, were recurring themes.
During these sessions, the communities were encouraged to explore innovative ways of using existing resources and addressing the challenges identified. A key aim of intercommunity dialogue is recognising and bolstering positive social cohesion practices. This involves promoting complementarity between groups through initiatives such as economic exchanges (cattle and agricultural products, for instance), collaborative management of water infrastructure, schools and health centres, mutual aid and joint consultations between religious leaders and administrative authorities. Moreover, the approach sought to bring together the Kanuri, Fulani and Choa Arab communities living in this area in order to address joint development challenges, such as inaccessible cattle tracks and environmental degradation caused by bank erosion.
The community agriculture initiatives played a crucial role in strengthening links between the displaced populations and host populations on the Mora Plain. Collaborative efforts involved NGOs such as RESILAC, International Rescue Committee (IRC), Livestock Farming Development Project (Projet de Développement de l’Élevage – PRODEL), National Participatory Development Programme (Programme National de Développement Participatif – PNDP), Codas Caritas, Intersos, and Plan Cameroon. Maroua Mokolo Diocese facilitated these initiatives. Participants from the two communities strengthened their relationships by working together and exchanging resources. The host communities provided land for crop growing, while the NGOs provided essential inputs such as seeds and agricultural supplies.
The stakeholders who participated in the dialogue subsequently shared the community meal, which brought together some of the host population (500 people) and the IDPs (639 people). The meal was arranged by the NGOs (RESILAC and Codas Caritas), as they were keen to ensure social cohesion in the IDP host communities. The participation of the host and displaced populations in activities that were rounded off by such a community meal helped bring them closer together. The same applies to activities in the community fields in the host areas of the Mora Plain. The initiatives brought together the two communities under the auspices of NGOs such as Codas Caritas from the Maroua Mokolo Diocese.
Water infrastructure management is another activity that contributes to social cohesion in host communities. A management committee was set up to guarantee the smooth running of the infrastructure. It comprised four members of the host population and two members of the displaced population, as well as representatives from the NGOs (a member of IRC in Makalingaï, a member of PRODEL and a member of PNDP in Moundouvaya). Moundouvaya[11]Moundouvaya, like Makalingaï, is a village in the Cameroon’s Far North region. is a palpable example of this convergence of people with no water access disputes being recorded at the standpipes installed by the PRODEL project. However, access to agricultural and pastoral land remains inadequate.
While intercommunity dialogue helps to alleviate tension and strengthen social cohesion, it cannot, by itself, guarantee sustainable natural resource management. Ecological restoration becomes a key issue, requiring integrated strategies combining ecosystem restoration and viable economic alternatives to ensure the sustainability of the initiatives being undertaken.
The challenges of ecological restoration
The alarming monetary poverty rate that affects close to 75% of the population in Cameroon’s Far North – i.e. almost double the national rate[12]Institut National de la Statistique, Enquête Complémentaire à la quatrième Enquête Camerounaise Auprès des Ménages (EC-ECAM 4). Monographie de la région de l’Extrême-Nord, 2020. – reflects structural precarity that increases the dependence of the local population (both host and IDP) on natural resources. This situation leads to intensive use of ecosystems, threatening their balance and compromising environmental resilience. In response, the Cameroonian authorities have implemented several natural environment protection and restoration initiatives, including the Sahel Vert programme, which was noteworthy for its reforestation ambitions.
Launched in the 1980s, this programme aimed to mitigate the effects of desertification by creating community forests, like the Makalingaï Forest, which helped improve the microclimate and diversify forms of farming.
However, the impact of these efforts remains limited because of a lack of follow-up and constant human pressure. The increased demand for wood for basic needs (heating, building shelters and generating an income through selling wood) has led to the gradual deterioration of the replanted forests. In Makalingaï, for instance, only 200 young trees have survived across the 25 hectares that were initially reforested, illustrating the scale of the challenge of sustainable natural resource management. These difficulties highlight the need for integrated strategies, combining reforestation, sustainable alternative energy sources and economic empowerment of the population, in order to guarantee effective and sustainable management of the vulnerable ecosystems.
The increased demand for wood for basic needs (heating, building shelters and generating an income through selling wood) has led to the gradual deterioration of the replanted forests
Despite the reforestation and environmental initiative efforts made, demographic and climatic trends continue to place significant pressure on the local ecosystems. Consequently, the transformation of the Makalingaï area has become a strategic opportunity to reconcile adaptation to environmental challenges and inclusive development, thus guaranteeing a more sustainable future for the local communities.
New projects have been launched to address these failings and promote sustainable alternatives. The Anarcade [Cashew Nut] project, supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER), aims to restore damaged ecosystems while providing economic development prospects for local communities. This project involves planting 500 cashew nut trees over 21 hectares in Makalingaï and is helping to diversify incomes and combat desertification. However, the initiative’s long-term success will depend on the ability to sustainably involve local communities and equip them with the necessary skills.
An area undergoing a sustainable transition?
The restructuring of the Makalingaï area stands out because of the integrated development approach being employed. This approach takes into consideration interdependencies between social, economic and environmental aspects. An ambitious reforestation plan is at the heart of the strategy, with the aim to restore 45 hectares of degraded land and create an agro-forestry zone. This initiative actively involves the host communities and displaced populations and, consequently, strengthens social cohesion and fosters inclusive development.
At the same time, the restructuring of the Makalingaï area involves the introduction of sustainable agricultural systems. In this way, population food production needs and environmental conservation requirements can be reconciled. The development of local infrastructure, such as roads and schools, completes this integrated development approach. The model is a source of inspiration for NGOs wanting to adapt their programmes to contemporary social and climatic circumstances, demonstrating that it is possible to reconcile economic development, environmental protection and social cohesion priorities.
As shown by the field survey data, some land units experienced significant change between 2013 and 2023. The restructuring of the Makalingaï area therefore offers promising prospects for the region’s future. By consolidating collective resilience to environmental changes, this strategy could be replicated in other regions facing similar issues.
Translated from the French by Gillian Eaton
Picture Credit : Joël Moudio
